What did a medieval government actually do on a daily basis? Thanks to the rich administrative records from the Middle Ages, we have detailed insights into the workings of royal bureaucracy and how money was spent. One valuable source of such information is the Close Rolls of England’s King John, which provide a glimpse into the decisions and orders that shaped his reign.

By 1204, or perhaps a little earlier, King John’s government (1199–1216) began documenting their Close Rolls—letters, orders, and instructions sealed with the royal “Close Seal.” These letters were called “close” because they were sealed shut (as opposed to open letters, which were public). Typically, these documents were sent to individuals or officials, addressing various aspects of governance, including land disputes, financial matters, and appointments.

Here are some examples of these Close Rolls, translated by Samuel Bentley, which highlight a range of topics, from international diplomacy to the everyday expenses of the royal court.

The King to the King of Scotland, thanking him for the messengers he had sent respecting matters in treaty between them, which when they should meet might be brought to good effect: informing him that he had retained the messengers, because a council of bishops and barons would be held on the feast of St. Peter ad Vincula, and he expected an answer by R. constable of Chester and others whom he had sent to the King of Scotland, to the end that, having taken the advice of the council and heard the answer, he might hasten to the said King to fulfil what they treated upon. Expressing his satisfaction at the exception the King of Scotland had made as to retaining the land of Tundal, which had not been mentioned in the convention, and of which he had before been seised; and assuring him that he did all in good faith. Windsor, 24 July 1205.